Harsh Realities Force Pause on India’s BrahMos-2 Hypersonic Dream

India's quest for the BrahMos-2 hypersonic cruise missile has come face to face with some grim reality checks, and BrahMos Aerospace, which was to develop the missile in partnership with Russia, has reportedly paused development of the missile.

Three factors appear to have weighed in the decision to push back BrahMos-2 development:

1. The high cost of the BrahMos-2 missile

2. The high precision and air defence (AD) penetration capability of the BrahMos missile

3. Russia's reluctance to transfer hypersonic flight scramjet engine technology

The BrahMos-2 is projected to cost approximately $12.5 million. In contrast, BrahMos-1 variant costs range from $3 million to $4.5 million.

The BrahMos-1 established a good accuracy and penetration track record during Op Sindoor. Similarly, Russia's Onyx missile, a BrahMos-1 analogue, has established a good track record in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine. The penetration capability of the hypersonic BrahMos-2 will be marginally higher than the BrahMos, but not enough to justify its much higher cost. Under the circumstances, it would make more sense for India to increase its inventory of BrahMos missiles through a production ramp-up that will additionally cut down unit cost.

Russia’s reluctance to provide full transfer-of-technology access for scramjet propulsion systems derived from its 3M22 Zircon hypersonic missile isn't surprising. Russia is a world leader in scramjet propulsion, and its need to preserve that lead is existential in nature.

Indigenous Hypersonic Development

Deprioritising BrahMos-2 development could energise several DRDO R&D programs aimed at mastering hypersonic flight and scramjet propulsion.

DRDO has already developed ramjet and scramjet engines for missiles. The former operate efficiently at high supersonic speeds, and the latter operate efficiently at hypersonic speeds.

DRDO developed a ramjet engine for its Akash air defence missile and locally manufactures the ramjet engine that powers the BrahMos missile. A project to develop an indigenous alternative ramjet engine for the BrahMos missile is reportedly underway.

DRDO’s Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV) successfully demonstrated short-duration scramjet engine operation.

Under the follow-up Extended Trajectory–Long Distance Hypersonic Cruise Missile (ET-LDHCM) program, the Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) successfully demonstrated long-duration scramjet propulsion. On January 9, 2026, DRDL operated its actively cooled, full-scale scramjet combustor, achieving a run time of over 12 minutes at its state-of-the-art Scramjet Connect Pipe Test (SCPT) facility.

Earlier, on April 25, 2025, DRDL had successfully ground-tested a subscale actively cooled scramjet combustor for more than 1,000 seconds at the same facility.

The maiden ground test of the full-scale combustor, lasting 120 seconds, took place on January 21, 2025.

With these successful tests, the scramjet combustor is now poised for full-scale, flight-worthy testing.

Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ)

In a ramjet engine, the air entering the engine is slowed to subsonic speed and consequently compressed before combustion. In a scramjet engine, the air is similarly slowed down and compressed but remains supersonic throughout the combustor.

Ramjet engines operate efficiently roughly from Mach 3 to Mach 6. Scramjet engines are needed for speeds beyond Mach 6–7.

A DMRJ, which combines ramjet and scramjet propulsion, can operate efficiently across a very wide supersonic to hypersonic speed envelope by switching how combustion occurs inside the engine.

The Indian Air Force, on January 29, 2026, signed a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with the Foundation for Science Innovation and Development (FSID), IISc Bengaluru, to indigenously develop a dual-mode ramjet/scramjet engine (DMRJ), intended for use in propelling missiles or combat aircraft.

BrahMos-2 Hypersonic Cruise Missile Program

India's quest for a hypersonic cruise missile started as far back as 2008 when, during a visit to India by Russian Defence Minister Anatoly Serdyukov, the two countries signed an agreement to develop a hypersonic follow-up to the BrahMos missile.

In September 2009, the two countries finalised the technical QRs for the missile and signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU).

However, the project has failed to make any headway since then. Meanwhile, Russia has gone on to complete development of a BrahMos-2 analogue, the Zircon. Russia operationally deployed the missile as part of its Special Military Operation in Ukraine. Launched from coastal batteries, the Zircon has proven more destructive and difficult to intercept than even the Russian Iskander-M quasi-ballistic missile.

During an interview in June 2024, BrahMos Aerospace's CEO Atul Dinkar Rane and Deputy CEO Dr. Sanjeev Kumar Joshi told Sputnik India that while BrahMos-2 remained in the pipeline, project development would be initiated only after completing development of the BrahMos-NG missile, a lighter, scaled-down version of the BrahMos that would facilitate launch by Tejas and MiG-29UPG.

"Hypersonic BrahMos is in our pipeline. However, a definite timeline for its development cannot be provided at this stage. Presently, we are working on the BrahMos-NG programme. Once we realise it successfully, we would consider working on the more advanced hypersonic BrahMos variant."

In July 2025, RT India reported that Russia and India could reach an agreement to rekindle the BrahMos-2 hypersonic cruise missile project during Russian President Vladimir Putin's visit to India.

Prioritising BrahMos-NG Development

Much like the BrahMos-2, the BrahMos-NG missile development project has remained in limbo since it was first announced in 2011.

However, recent reports suggest that development of the missile may have started, though the project is yet to receive an official nod.

On September 9, 2025, TASS reported that BrahMos Aerospace is designing the missile and intends to begin autonomous testing next year.

TASS quoted Alexander Maksichev, Russian Managing Director of the JV, as saying:

“We are currently at the working design stage… and then we will move on to autonomous tests.”

He added that it was too early to discuss the timeline for actual flight testing.

"Autonomous testing" is likely ground-based testing. Flight testing could require an additional year or two, considering the need to upgrade a test aircraft—likely an IAF MiG-29—with supporting hardware and software.

More recently, it has been reported that the new missile would be capable of launching from standard submarine torpedo tubes—similar to the submarine-launched Exocet used on Scorpene submarines.

Clearly, BrahMos Aerospace has its hands full with the development of the BrahMos-NG and does not have the resources to develop the BrahMos-2 at this point in time.

Conclusion

The lethality, penetration, and accuracy of the high-supersonic-speed BrahMos-1 missile can adequately meet the operational needs of the Indian Armed Forces for the time being.

Embarking on the development of the hypersonic BrahMos-2 through a collaborative project would dramatically raise costs, make the missile unaffordable in large numbers, and result in very little technological gain. Indeed, a hypersonic capability could well prove destabilising, considering that we share land borders with our nuclear-armed adversaries. The shorter flight time of hypersonic missiles would lower the nuclear threshold.

Copyright © Vijainder K Thakur. First published on Thumkar.

DRDO Cracks Scramjet Propulsion for Sustained Hypersonic Flight — BrahMos-2 Moves from Concept to Reality

 

@Grok generated visualisation of the Brahmos-2 hypersonic missile in flight

The Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL) successfully conducted an extensive, long-duration ground test of its Actively Cooled, Full-Scale Scramjet Combustor, achieving a run time of over 12 minutes at its state-of-the-art Scramjet Connect Pipe Test (SCPT) Facility on January 9, 2026.

Earlier, on April 25, 2025, DRDL had successfully ground-tested a subscale actively cooled scramjet combustor for more than 1,000 seconds at the same facility.

The maiden ground test of the full-scale combustor, lasting 120 seconds, took place on January 21, 2025.

With these successful tests, the scramjet combustor is now poised for full-scale, flight-worthy testing.

So what exactly is an “Actively Cooled Scramjet Full-Scale Combustor,” and why is this technology significant? The following sections explain.

The Need for a Hypersonic Cruise Missile

An actively cooled scramjet combustor is the most critical component of a scramjet engine.

A scramjet engine differs fundamentally from a ramjet engine—such as those powering the Akash and BrahMos missiles. In a ramjet, airflow inside the combustion chamber is subsonic, whereas in a scramjet, the airflow remains supersonic throughout the combustion process.

A scramjet engine is an absolute prerequisite for sustained, level hypersonic flight within the atmosphere. The only alternative method of achieving atmospheric hypersonic flight is through boost-glide vehicles.

Boost-glide flight involves lofting a hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) to altitudes of approximately 40–100 km using a booster rocket. The HGV then dives steeply toward Earth, achieving hypersonic speed due to gravity, before transitioning into a flatter glide trajectory, trading altitude to counter atmospheric drag. Importantly, the HGV is unpowered during this phase. (DRDO is also developing an HGV under the BM-04 project.)

HGVs have inherent operational limitations. Because they are lofted to high altitudes—or even beyond the atmosphere—by a booster, they are easily detected by radar and infrared sensors. Once detected, they can be readily tracked. During the boost and early glide phases, HGVs are particularly vulnerable to adversary air and missile defenses.

In contrast, hypersonic cruise missiles need not be lofted to extreme altitudes. For maximum range, they can climb to 20–30 km to minimize drag and then cruise at hypersonic speed. When operating at shorter ranges, they can fly at much lower altitudes, significantly reducing the probability of radar detection and tracking.

Understanding the DRDL Breakthrough

DRDL has taken the lead in developing long-duration, scramjet-powered hypersonic propulsion technology.

This effort is highly likely based on technology matured under the Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV) programme.

The HSTDV programme demonstrated a scramjet-powered flight lasting 20 seconds. The current objective is to develop an engine capable of sustained hypersonic flight, enabled by an actively cooled scramjet combustor.

Twelve minute ground test of DRDL's Actively Cooled, Full-Scale Scramjet Combustor at its state-of-the-art Scramjet Connect Pipe Test (SCPT) Facility on January 9, 2026.

Scramjet Propulsion Challenges

One of the most formidable challenges in scramjet development is igniting the engine in supersonic airflow and maintaining stable combustion. Igniting a scramjet is often likened to lighting a matchstick in a hurricane.

The DRDL-developed scramjet combustor incorporates an innovative flame-stabilisation technique that sustains continuous combustion at airflow speeds exceeding 1.5 km/s.

Before arriving at the current engine configuration, DRDO evaluated several novel ignition and flame-holding techniques using advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and extensive ground testing.

Active Cooling

Long-duration scramjet operation necessitates active cooling, which allows engines to operate longer and at higher speeds without structural failure.

In active cooling, a coolant—often the fuel itself, such as an endothermic hydrocarbon fuel—is circulated through channels embedded in the combustor walls before being injected for combustion. The coolant absorbs heat from the structure, preventing overheating.

After absorbing heat, the now preheated fuel burns more efficiently, making the process thermally regenerative.

The indigenous development of endothermic scramjet fuel, jointly by DRDL and Indian industry, was a major breakthrough contributing to the success of the programme.

According to DRDO, these endothermic fuels undergo chemical reactions when heated, absorbing large quantities of heat. This not only cools the engine structure but also conditions the fuel for improved combustion efficiency.

Other Hypersonic Flight Challenges

Scramjet propulsion is only one of several challenges associated with hypersonic cruise missile development. Others include maintaining structural integrity and flight control at hypersonic speeds.

At Mach 5 and above, atmospheric drag generates intense frictional heating. The missile airframe must withstand extreme temperatures without structural degradation. Additionally, frictional heating can cause the missile to become enveloped in a plasma sheath, which can disrupt radio communications and guidance signals.

It is likely that DRDL addressed many of these challenges during the HSTDV programme. However, given that HSTDV demonstrated hypersonic flight for only 20 seconds, further work is likely required to validate long-duration performance.

ET-LDHCM

In July 2025, ET had reported that India is developing a new hypersonic missile that can travel at eight times the speed of sound and strike targets as far as 1,500 kilometres away. The Extended Trajectory Long Duration Hypersonic Cruise Missile (ET-LDHCM) is being developed under DRDO's Project Vishnu.

Conclusion

At present, Russia’s Tsirkon (3M22 Zircon) is the only operational hypersonic cruise missile. The missile has been used extensively against Ukrainian targets.

Tsirkon reportedly cruises at speeds of up to Mach 9, with a range of 400–450 km at low altitudes and up to 1,000 km when cruising at 20–40 km or along a semi-ballistic trajectory.

Ukrainian forces acknowledge that Tsirkon is extremely difficult to intercept. While occasional shootdown claims have been made, none have been supported by incontrovertible evidence.

China completed development of its YJ-20 hypersonic cruise missile with scramjet propulsion in 2025. With capabilities broadly comparable to Tsirkon, the missile is expected to enter operational service in 2026.

DRDO’s sustained progress in hypersonic propulsion suggests that India could field an operational hypersonic cruise missile within the next five years. It's moot whether the missile will ultimately be called ET-LDHCM, Brahmos-2 or something else. 

Copyright © Vijainder K Thakur. First published on Thumkar.